Theories of Language Learning, How Adults Learn Languages
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Below is an essay I wrote in 1998.
Please go to the references section for research articles.
I looked very diligently for research on English Only but found none.
If you know of any, please add it to this page!
Theories of Learning a Language, by Paul Rogers, May, 1998
THEORY AND PRACTICE: Many people refer to Krashen as one of the most authoritative theoreticians in ESL. But I would like to point out that his colleague, Tracy Terrell, is the author of a bilingual Spanish text, Dos Mundos. Theory must be connected to practice for it to have any meaning.
a. Learning a language consists of learning to: Listen, Speak, Read and Write, and... Communicate.
When a student attempts to communicate in a foreign language, he or she becomes an “active learner” and will most likely progress more effectively.
b. Pronunciation as a key element.
Beside the physical or muscular difficulties students have with English, there is also “interference” due to the effects that one language has on another.
Therefore, the author feels that concentrating on problem sounds during each class or lesson in a step by step manner will greatly assist the student of English. Many students feel uncomfortable speaking English because of pronunciation difficulties, and when these difficulties begin to disappear, the students feel more “confident” and become “active learners.”
c. Latent learning.
There is a phenomenon in learning psychology called latent learning which we all experience, probably. Basically, it means -in everyday life- trying very hard to master something, getting frustrated, leaving it alone, then going back to the task and finding out - voila! - that it is now easier to learn than before. Probably the brain rehearses the task, but in any case, considering the fact that many adult students work and cannot attend classes for a variety or reasons, it is the author’s opinion that explaining latent learning to the students can alleviate the anxiety and pressure of “not attending class.”
d. Teacher centered versus student centered.
Teacher centered refers to the practice of some teachers to stand in front of the class and lecture and drill the students who sit at their desks in front of the blackboard.
Student centered refers to the setting in which the students sit in small groups and work together on exercises, etc., and in which some students are given the responsibility of assistant teachers. The teacher’s role in a student centered approach is to provide most of the material and curriculum, answer questions, give guidance, teach how to teach, and listen very carefully to the students’ progress in pronunciation, communication, and ability to speak.
It is the author’s opinion that the latter approach leads to a more efficient use of class time and therefore to a more rapid learning of a language.
e. Literature Based versus Grammar and “Situational” Based Literature based refers to the use of an abundant amount of literature, poetry, songs, stories and even music in the process of teaching/learning a language.
- Grammar and ‘situational” based methods concentrate on memorization
and drill of grammar rules and usage and phrases used in conversation.
- The author feels that a step by step literature based course is the
more effective in learning a language.
- Actually, providing appropriate literature to the student also accelerates
speaking ability.
f. English Only versus Bilingual or Multi Lingual classes.
The author believes that an English Only (the Direct Method or English Immersion) can be the most effective method of teaching English under certain conditions, namely:
(1) small classes of 6 to 8 students who are at the same level;
and (2) appropriate texts, video and audio tapes arranged in gradation.
However, the normal ESL class in the United States, especially in California, consists of at least 10 to 15 students, and perhaps as many as 30, whose primary language is Spanish, who do not come on a regular basis, and who are at different levels.
Therefore a “one size fits all” approach does not suffice. In addition, as the author has mentioned, see NOTE below, bilingual classes and texts seem to facilitate the students’ interest in learning English, and therefore speeds up their knowledge.
Classes in which there are students of various language backgrounds are a special case and need to be discussed further than the scope of this paper. But at least bilingual texts dand dictionaries can be used by students as references or for home study. And perhaps other language bilingual texts can also be created by the students themselves!
Or, perhaps in the above multi-lingual class, the teacher can find methods to work more closely with non-Spanish speaking students while “peer teaching” takes place among the Spanish speaking students.
NOTE From "Development of Bilingual Texts":
3. Some Basic Premises
A. Fluency versus Literacy
Fluency is here defined as the ability to speak a language. Literacy is defined as the ability to read and write. The goal of teaching (and learning) English should be competency in fluency and literacy. In addition, it must be stressed that the ability to listen to a foreign language and understand the majority of the words spoken should not be underestimated and also needs to be “taught.” And, finally, learning how to communicate or “get around” is a component part of the beginning stage.
B. Length of Time Needed
According to Collier and Cummings (see Bibliography) the length of time needed to learn a foreign language is between 5 and 7 years. This figure is usually given with respect to children in an elementary school program who also have the opportunity to interact and communicate with native English speakers every day. At the present time there does not seem to be any research on how long an adult would require to learn English in the context of adult evening classes. Therefore it must be assumed that 5 to 7 years would be the minimum amount of time expected.
C. Step by Step, or “Graded” Learning Process
Just as in the learning of other subjects, such as math, biology, chemistry or history, learning English progresses in stages from a lower to higher level. Therefore, the texts and materials used should allow the student to learn step by step through the gradual increase in complexity. Such an approach can be called a “graded” approach, and the texts “Graded Readers.”
D. Bilingual Classes or English Only Classes (The Direct Method)?
The author prefers a bilingual approach to teaching English for a number of reasons:
1. To facilitate explanations.
2. To build rapport among students.
3. To create an atmosphere of relaxation and “comfortableness.”
4. To allow for team learning.
5. To create cross cultural respect.
The rationale for English Only classes is clearly related to availability of multi-lingual teachers.
But at the same time, the author learned German in a German Only class many years ago, which was based on a Graded Reader method and which was very effective.
It is the author’s opinion that bilingual texts can also be used in an “English Only” classroom setting . In addition, the texts can also used by the teacher to learn Spanish.
E. Student Ownership Of Texts
In this paper it is assumed that it is better for a student to own the textbooks and materials than not to own texts. It is the author’s belief that personal ownership adds to the student’s sense of importance and self-esteem, along with incentive to study at home.
Yet from the author’s own experience and research, there seems to be a tendency for teachers to offer photocopied “worksheets” instead of textbooks and materials. Perhaps this method is a result of the fact that state sponsored ESL classes are free to the students and therefore there are funding considerations. In that event, perhaps textbooks and materials could be distributed in the context of a library loan. In any case, it is argued here that students should have access to an adequate amount of appropriate material for the study of English.
It is the opinion of the author that students should also pay a minimum fee for classes.
3. Description of Texts and Materials Developed by the author: See PUMAROSA.COM
